Introduction to Public International Law

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INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW The words international law was used for the first time by eminent British jurist, Jeremy Bentham in 1780.Oppenheim's definitionProfessor Oppenheim has defined international law as-international law is the name for the body of customary and conventional rules which are considered legally binding by civilized States in their intercourse with each other.The definition has been subject to the following criticism:The definition takes into account the relations of States' only. But, presently, international organizations and institutions are also regarded as subjects of international law. They have been given rights and duties under international law. Certain activities of multinational corporations are also regulated by this branch of law.International Law also provides certain rights and duties to individuals. United Nations Organisation. Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Covenants of Human Rights further confirm that the individuals have become not only the subjects of international law but can also directly claim rights and remedies provided under international law. Charter of the U.N. begins with the words we the people of the United Nations.Thus, the present international law cannot be regarded as the law governing the relations between States but must be regarded as the common law of mankind in an early stage of its development. At present, it also governs relations between States and international organisations, between States and private persons, and between international organisations and private persons. Transnational law to include all law which regulates actions or events that transcend national frontiers.The use of the term civilized States by Oppenheim is also severely criticised. In the not too distant past, the Western States regarded only the Christian States as civilized States. At present, there are many members of the U.N. which include Christian as well as non-Christian States.The words' legally binding' connote positive character which is diffused and diluted by the subsequent words by civilized States. Oppenheim does​​ not say that these rules are legally binding', but that they are considered so.The definition lays down that the rules of international law derive only from customs and treaties, but it is not correct. Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice mentions General Principles of Law recognised by the civilized nations as the third source of international law to be used while deciding an international dispute.The expression body of rules' denotes that international law is static or fixed. Its rules cannot be changed. However, international law is a dynamic and living law. Its rules have been changing over time out of experiences and necessities of situations.In the ninth edition of Oppenheim's book (1992) the term international law' has been defined differently after taking into account the new developments:International Law is the body of rules which are legally binding on States in their intercourse with each other. These rules are primarily those which govern the relations of States, but States are not the only subjects of international law. International organisations and, to some extent, also individuals may be subjects of rights conferred and duties imposed by international law.Other Classic definitionsBrierly-The law of nations or international law may be defined as the body of rules and principles of action which are binding upon civilized states in their relations with one another.Hackworth-International Law consists of a body of rules governing the relations between States.Queen v. Keyn,. Lord Coleridge, C.J. defined international law as the law of nations is the collection of usages which civilized States have agreed to observe in their dealings with one another.Gray-International Law or the law of nations is the name of a body of rules which according to the usual definitions regulate the conduct of States in their intercourse with each other.Cobbett-International Law may be described as the sum of the rules accepted by civilized States as determining their conduct towards each other and towards each other's subjects.The above definitions can also be criticised in the same way as Oppenheim's definition has been criticised. The definitions are inadequate to represent modem international law.Modern definitionsFenwick-International law may be defined in broad terms as the body of general principles and specific rules which are binding upon the members of the international community in their mutual relations. The definition takes into account the changes that have taken place after the Second World War. The International community' include States, international institutions, individuals, and non-State entities. The term general principles' is also incorporated in the definition.Whiteman-International law is the standard of conduct, at a given time, for States and other entities subject thereto. A brief but adequate definition; the words other entities subject thereto' may include international organisations, individuals, and non-State entities. Whiteman has also emphasised the dynamic aspect of international law: International Law is, more or less, in a continual state of change and development.Starke-International law may be defined as that body of law which is composed for its greater part of the principles and rules of conduct which states feel bound to observe, and, therefore, do commonly observe in their relations with each other, and which includes also:the rules of law relating to the functioning of international institutions/organisations, their relations with each other, and their relations with State and individuals; andCertain rules of law relating to individuals and non-State entities so far as the rights and duties of such individuals and non-State entities are the concern of the international community.Schwarzenberger-International law is the body of legal rules which apply between sovereign states and such other entities as having been granted international personality.Development of International Law (Scope of International Law)International law is a dynamic law. It has been changing since its inception. It is constantly developing, sometimes it does not keep up with developments, other times it anticipates them and gives an early warning of tendencies in the development of international relations. It is a developing philosophy of values. For example, in June 1989, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to warn the people of the increase in earth's temperature due to the green-house effect, gave the slogan of Global Warming'. At crucial or important turns of history, there are qualitative changes in​​ international law which makes it more effective in the present time.(function( $ ) { //footnotes $('.defaultNote').children(":first").css('cursor', 'pointer'); $('.defaultNote').children(":first").click(function(){ var gotoID = '#' + $(this).parent().attr('id'); $('html, body').animate( { scrollTop: $('a[href="' + gotoID + '"]').offset().top - 60, }, 250, 'linear' ) }); }(jQuery)); var numFormat = ",."; (function( $ ) { "use strict"; //do some cleaning on load var sortCells = $('td[data-sorting], th[data-sorting]'); sortCells.each(function(){ var first = $(this).text().trim().charAt(0); if (first == '@'){ var oldHTML = $(this).html(); var newHTML = oldHTML.replace('@', ''); $(this).html(newHTML); } }); function sortingTable(node, pos, ordBy){ var rows = node.children('tbody').children('tr').get(); rows.sort(function(a, b) { var X = $(a).children('td').eq(pos).text().toUpperCase(); var Y = $(b).children('td').eq(pos).text().toUpperCase(); if (numFormat != '.,'){ //we are dealing with a different locale and we need to do some //transformation in numbers X = convert2number(X); Y = convert2number(Y); } else { X = X.replace(/,/g, '').replace(/ /g, ''); Y = Y.replace(/,/g, '').replace(/ /g, ''); } var currencies = ['$', '¥', '£', '€']; var arrayLength = currencies.length; var XX = X; var YY = Y; for (var i = 0; i < arrayLength; i++) { XX = XX.replace(currencies[i], ''); YY = YY.replace(currencies[i], ''); } if (!isNaN(XX) && !isNaN(YY)){ var floatXX = parseFloat(XX); var floatYY = parseFloat(YY); return -(floatYY-floatXX) * ordBy; } else if (!isNaN(XX) && isNaN(YY)){ return -1 * ordBy; } else if (isNaN(XX) && !isNaN(YY)){ return ordBy; } else { if(X < Y) { return -1 * ordBy; } if(X > Y) { return 1 * ordBy; } return 0; } }); $.each(rows, function(index, row) { node.children('tbody').append(row); }); } function removeTableCellDecoration() { $("td[data-sorting], th[data-sorting]").removeClass('sortDecorator'); } //unbind the click event just in case we are loading more than one document $("td[data-sorting], th[data-sorting]").off('click'); $("td[data-sorting], th[data-sorting]").click(function(){ removeTableCellDecoration(); $(this).addClass('sortDecorator'); //get desired ordering var ordering = $(this).attr('data-sortOrdering'); if (ordering == 'ASC'){ var ordBy = -1; $(this).attr('data-sortOrdering', 'DESC'); } else { var ordBy = 1; $(this).attr('data-sortOrdering', 'ASC'); } var cellPosition = $(this).prevAll().length; var table = $(this).parents('table:first'); sortingTable(table, cellPosition, ordBy); }); function convert2number(str) { str = str.trim(); if (str.match(/^\d+/)) { //we have to take special care when the thousand separators are '.' var result_0 = str.replace(/\./g, '_@_'); var result_1 = result_0.replace(window.numFormat[0], '.'); var result = result_1.replace(/_@_/g, ''); result .replace(/ /g, ''); return result; } else { return str; } } }(jQuery));