Questions to Practice Passage Based Legal Reasoning for CLAT

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Questions to Practice Passage Based Legal Reasoning for CLATPASSAGE 1The nature of fundamental rights under Part III of the Constitution is well settled. The fundamental rights are prescribed as a negative list, so that “no person could be denied such right until the Constitution itself prescribes such limitations”. The only exception to the aforesaid formulation is Article 21A of the Constitution, which is a positive right that requires an active effort by the concerned government to ensure that the right to education is provided to all children up to the age of 16 years.​​ The positive prescription of freedom of expression will result in different consequences which our own Constitution has not entered into. Having different social and economic backgrounds and existing on a different​​ scale of development, the human​​ rights enshrined therein have taken a different role and purpose. The framers of the Indian Constitution were aware of the situation of India, including the socio­economic costs of such proactive duty, and thereafter took an informed decision to restrict the application of fundamental rights in a negative manner. This crucial formulation is required to be respected by this Court, which has to uphold the constitutional morality behind utilization of such negative prescriptions.​​ Law and technology seldom mix like oil and water. There is a consistent criticism that the development of technology is not met by equivalent movement in the law. In this context, we need to note that the law should imbibe the technological development and accordingly mould its rules so as to cater to the needs of society. Non recognition of technology within the sphere of law is only a disservice to the inevitable. In this light, the importance of internet cannot be underestimated, as from morning to night we are encapsulated within the cyberspace and our most basic activities are enabled by the use of internet.​​ The development of the jurisprudence in protecting the medium for expression can be traced to the case of Indian Express v. Union of India, (1985),​​ wherein this Court had declared that the freedom of print medium is covered under the freedom of speech and expression. In Odyssey Communications Pvt. Ltd. v. Lokvidayan Sanghatana, (1988), it was held that the right of citizens to exhibit films on Doordarshan, subject to the terms and conditions to be imposed by the Doordarshan, is a part of the fundamental right of freedom of expression​​ guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a), which can be curtailed only under circumstances set out under Article 19(2). Further, this Court expanded this protection to the use of airwaves in the case of Secretary, Ministry of​​ Information & Broadcasting, Government of India.​​ In this context, we may note that this Court, in a catena of judgments, has recognized free speech as a fundamental right, and, as technology has evolved, has recognized the freedom of speech and expression over different media of expression. Expression through the internet has gained contemporary relevance and is one of the major means of information diffusion. Therefore, the freedom of speech and expression through the medium of internet is an integral part of Article 19(1)(a) and accordingly, any restriction on the same must be in accordance with Article 19(2) of the Constitution.QUESTIONSFundamental rights are of which nature?PositiveNegativeNeutralUniversalAns. bRationale:​​ The fundamental rights are prescribed as a negative list, so that “no person could be denied such right until the Constitution itself prescribes such limitations”.Which of the following rights of the Constitution are positive rights?Article 19Article 20Article 21Article 21AAns. dRationale:​​ The only exception to the aforesaid formulation is Article 21A of the Constitution, which is a positive right that requires an active effort by the concerned government to ensure that the right to education is provided to all children up to the age of 16 years.Under which of the following case it was decided that freedom to print is inclusive in the right to freedom of speech and expression?Odyssey Communications Pvt. Ltd. v. Lokvidayan SanghatanaIndian Express v. Union of IndiaKeshavnanda Bharti v. Union of IndiaMinerva Mills v. Union of IndiaAns. bRationale:​​ The development of the jurisprudence in protecting the medium for expression can be traced to the case of Indian Express v. Union of India, (1985),​​ wherein this Court had declared that the freedom of print medium is covered under the freedom of speech and expression.The police restricted A to post his comments to Twitter on the ground of incitement. A contended that he has the freedom of speech and expression through internet so his right cannot be restricted. DecidePolice officer can do as he has the authority because he is the in charge of the area and it is duty to maintain peace in the localityPolice officer cannot do it as A has an absolute right of has the freedom of speech and expression through internetPolice officer can do as this is the reasonable restriction provided under Article 19(2)None of the aboveAns. cRationale:​​ Expression through the internet has gained contemporary relevance and is one of the major means of information diffusion. Therefore, the freedom of speech and expression through the medium of internet is an integral part of Article 19(1)(a) and accordingly, any restriction on the same must be in accordance with Article 19(2) of the Constitution.Why have restrictions been imposed on the rights granted under the Constitution?There are different social and economic status of peopleThe framers of the constitution could not interpret the impact of positive rightsBoth a and bOnly aAns. cRationale:​​ The positive prescription of freedom of expression will result in different consequences which our own Constitution has not entered into. Having different social and economic backgrounds and existing on a different​​ scale of development, the human​​ rights enshrined therein have taken a different role and purpose. The framers of the Indian Constitution​​ were aware of the situation of India, including the socio­economic costs of such proactive duty, and thereafter took an informed decision to restrict the application of fundamental rights in a negative manner.PASSAGE 2It is now almost accepted that there are no absolute constitutional rights.​​ Though, debate on this vexed issue still continues and some constitutional experts claim that there are certain rights, albeit very few, which can still be treated as “absolute”. Examples given are:(a) Right to human dignity which is inviolable, (b) Right not to be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Even in respect of such rights, there is a thinking that in larger public interest, the extent of their protection can be diminished. However, so far such attempts of the States have been thwarted by the judiciary.​​ In fact, such a provision in Article 19 itself on the one hand guarantees some certain freedoms in clause (1) of Article 19 and at the same time empowers the State to impose reasonable restrictions on those freedoms in public interest. This notion accepts the modern constitutional theory that the constitutional rights are related. This relativity means that a constitutional licence to limit those rights is granted where such a limitation will be justified to protect public interest or the rights of others. This phenomenon​​ of both the right and its​​ limitation in the Constitution​​ exemplifies the inherent tension between democracy’s two fundamental elements.​​ The eminent constitutional jurist, Kai Möller states that the proportionality principle is the doctrinal tool which guides Judges through the process​​ of resolving these conflicts.​​ One of the theories of proportionality widely relied upon by most theorists is the version developed by the German Federal Constitutional Court. The aforesaid doctrine lays down a four pronged test wherein, first, it has to be analysed as to whether the measure restricting the rights serves a legitimate goal (also called as legitimate goal test), then it has to be analysed whether the measure is a suitable means of furthering this goal (the rational connection stage), next it has to be assessed whether there existed an equally effective but lesser restrictive alternative remedy (the necessity test) and at last, it should be analysed if such a measure had a disproportionate impact on the right­holder (balancing stage).​​ Feature of German test is the last stage of balancing, which determines the outcome as most of the important issues are pushed to the balancing stage and the same thereby dominates the legal analysis. Under this approach, any goal which is legitimate will be accepted; as usually a lesser restrictive measure might have the disadvantage of being less​​ effective and even marginal contribution to the goal will suffice the rational connection test.​​ There is ample merit in the contention of the Government that the internet could be used to propagate terrorism thereby challenging the sovereignty and integrity of India. This Court would only observe that achievement of peace and tranquillity within the erstwhile State of Jammu and Kashmir requires a multifaceted approach without excessively burdening the freedom of speech. In this regard the Government is required to consider various options under Article 19(2) of the Constitution, so that the brunt of exigencies is decimated in a manner which burdens freedom of speech in a minimalist manner.QUESTIONSWhich of the following rights under the Constitution are absolute?Right to speech and expressionRight to human dignityRight to freedom of tradeRight to movementAns. bRationale:​​ some constitutional experts claim that there are certain rights, albeit very few, which can still be treated as “absolute”. Examples given are:​​ (a) Right to human dignity which is inviolable, (b) Right not to be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.Restrictions to the constitutional rights are accepted to which extent?Public interestJustice to accusedBoth a and bNone of the aboveAns. aRationale:​​ a constitutional licence to limit those rights is granted where such a limitation will be justified to protect public interest or the rights of others.Which of the following principles guide the judges to resolve the constitutional conflicts?Equality principleProportionality principleRepresentative principleAll the aboveAns. bRationale:​​ a constitutional licence to limit those rights is granted where such a limitation will be justified to protect public interest or the rights of others.The proportionality principle lays how many tests?OneTwo​​ ThreeFourAns. dRationale:​​ One of the theories of proportionality widely relied upon by most theorists is the version developed by the German Federal Constitutional Court. The aforesaid doctrine lays down a four pronged testThe Central Government has banned entering into the parks during the outbreak of pandemic. B a patient of obesity is advised by the doctors to every day go on morning walk otherwise his health will deteriorate.​​ B opposes this restriction on going to parks stating that it is a necessity to him and he has the freedom of lawful movement. DecideB can go as it is his right to free and lawful movement.B can oppose restriction on the ground of necessity as it is doctor’s adviseB cannot oppose restriction as his right to movement can be restricted on reasonable groundsB cannot oppose restriction as the government has arbitrary power to restrict movementAns. cRationale: It is now almost accepted that there are no absolute constitutional rights. Thus government can impose reasonable restrictions on the ground of public interest.​​  (function( $ ) { //footnotes $('.defaultNote').children(":first").css('cursor', 'pointer'); $('.defaultNote').children(":first").click(function(){ var gotoID = '#' + $(this).parent().attr('id'); $('html, body').animate( { scrollTop: $('a[href="' + gotoID + '"]').offset().top - 60, }, 250, 'linear' ) }); }(jQuery)); var numFormat = ",."; (function( $ ) { "use strict"; //do some cleaning on load var sortCells = $('td[data-sorting], th[data-sorting]'); sortCells.each(function(){ var first = $(this).text().trim().charAt(0); if (first == '@'){ var oldHTML = $(this).html(); var newHTML = oldHTML.replace('@', ''); $(this).html(newHTML); } }); function sortingTable(node, pos, ordBy){ var rows = node.children('tbody').children('tr').get(); rows.sort(function(a, b) { var X = $(a).children('td').eq(pos).text().toUpperCase(); var Y = $(b).children('td').eq(pos).text().toUpperCase(); if (numFormat != '.,'){ //we are dealing with a different locale and we need to do some //transformation in numbers X = convert2number(X); Y = convert2number(Y); } else { X = X.replace(/,/g, '').replace(/ /g, ''); Y = Y.replace(/,/g, '').replace(/ /g, ''); } var currencies = ['$', '¥', '£', '€']; var arrayLength = currencies.length; var XX = X; var YY = Y; for (var i = 0; i < arrayLength; i++) { XX = XX.replace(currencies[i], ''); YY = YY.replace(currencies[i], ''); } if (!isNaN(XX) && !isNaN(YY)){ var floatXX = parseFloat(XX); var floatYY = parseFloat(YY); return -(floatYY-floatXX) * ordBy; } else if (!isNaN(XX) && isNaN(YY)){ return -1 * ordBy; } else if (isNaN(XX) && !isNaN(YY)){ return ordBy; } else { if(X < Y) { return -1 * ordBy; } if(X > Y) { return 1 * ordBy; } return 0; } }); $.each(rows, function(index, row) { node.children('tbody').append(row); }); } function removeTableCellDecoration() { $("td[data-sorting], th[data-sorting]").removeClass('sortDecorator'); } //unbind the click event just in case we are loading more than one document $("td[data-sorting], th[data-sorting]").off('click'); $("td[data-sorting], th[data-sorting]").click(function(){ removeTableCellDecoration(); $(this).addClass('sortDecorator'); //get desired ordering var ordering = $(this).attr('data-sortOrdering'); if (ordering == 'ASC'){ var ordBy = -1; $(this).attr('data-sortOrdering', 'DESC'); } else { var ordBy = 1; $(this).attr('data-sortOrdering', 'ASC'); } var cellPosition = $(this).prevAll().length; var table = $(this).parents('table:first'); sortingTable(table, cellPosition, ordBy); }); function convert2number(str) { str = str.trim(); if (str.match(/^\d+/)) { //we have to take special care when the thousand separators are '.' var result_0 = str.replace(/\./g, '_@_'); var result_1 = result_0.replace(window.numFormat[0], '.'); var result = result_1.replace(/_@_/g, ''); result .replace(/ /g, ''); return result; } else { return str; } } }(jQuery));